the distinguishing feature of a coronavirus is its:

You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the articles Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. Head-to-head comparisons of mRNA vaccines will be informative to identify and evaluate differences of innate and adaptive responses as well as reactogenicity between representatives of this class of COVID-19 vaccines. Adv. Mol. People become infected when they then touch their hands to their mouth, nose or eyes. PubMed Central Genome Med. Gilbert, S. C., Hill, A. V. & Morris, S. J. Compositions and Methods for Inducing an Immune Response. N. Engl. Cell 182, 828842.e816 (2020). Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) and the common cold are examples of coronaviruses that cause illness in humans. Shaw, R. H. et al. Brun, J. et al. Do your part to the stop the spread of rumors by doing three easy things: Find trusted sources of information. 2). Piccoli, L. et al. Lancet 397, 99111 (2021). Single-shot Ad26 vaccine protects against SARS-CoV-2 in rhesus macaques. The mmWave technology is just one technology that 5G networks can use. However, the absence of interactions with other viral components for particle assembly may modulate glycosylation patterns and stability of the S trimers. Isolation of potent SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies and protection from disease in a small animal model. Proteolytic cleavage into S1 and S2 occurs in the TGN similar to that in infected cells, but some shedding of cleaved S1 and conversion of S2 into its post-fusion structure (S2*) may occur in the absence of stabilizing mutations. . Christina Marriott, chief executive of the Royal Society for Public Health says: "Growing evidence shows that people who've received two doses of the vaccine typically present . Kelso, J. M. Anaphylactic reactions to novel mRNA SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 vaccines. Currently, a slightly but significantly increased risk of thrombotic events (including cerebral venous sinus thrombosis) was reported after vaccination with Oxford-AstraZeneca and Janssen adenovirus vector vaccines and has raised considerable concern74,75. Front. Nat. 1,2 However, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has also demonstrated distinct clinical characteristics, such as anosmia and hypogeusia. Rubin, R. COVID-19 vaccines vs variantsdetermining how much immunity is enough. Quantitative recovery of adenoviral vector particles involves lysis of the cells by detergents (Fig. The spikes are the most distinguishing feature of coronaviruses and are responsible for the corona- or halo-like surface. J. Med. J. Med. Therefore, isolation of the final product includes detergent solubilization of the cells and several steps of purification101. A. Logunov, D. Y. et al. Antiviral Res 176, 104742104742 (2020). 23, 14561464 (2015). c Expression of spike in cells of vaccinated individuals. Wall, E. C. et al. and K.S. Curr. Vaccines 12, 379393 (2013). Nat. Sensors in the cytoplasm, such as retinoic-inducible gene I (RIG-I) and melanoma differentiation-associated antigen 5 (MDA-5) recognize preferentially dsRNA, also leading to stimulation of type I IFN secretion134,135. Vaccine 39, 21902200 (2021). Kids face the same risk of catching it as adults, although the disease is usually milder in children. Greaney, A. J. et al. Vaccines 11, 695719 (2012). Rev. These also differ with respect to their degree of purity (presence of extraneous proteins from the production process) and other vaccine constituents that can affect immune responses and cause adverse events. The second category encompasses protein-based approaches, i.e. Researchers looking at New York City health cases split up COVID-19 patients into clusters based on distinguishing features, including obesity, to form a "decision tree" for statistical analysis . Head-to-head comparisons of current mRNA vaccines with respect to possible differences in the efficiency of protein translation, stability or the stimulation of innate responses are not available in the literature. 8, 14301435 (2011). 22, 539540 (2021). a Infected cells: Subgenomic mRNAs for viral structural proteins are translated in association with the ER (S, M, and E) or in the cytoplasm (N), and virus assembly takes place in the ERGIC. Interim findings from first-dose mass COVID-19 vaccination roll-out and COVID-19 hospital admissions in Scotland: a national prospective cohort study. Ghosh, S. et al. Zhang, Y. et al. Winkler, E. S. et al. 48, 6572 (2021). (Image credit: Daedalean) Daedalean is looking to get its AI certified with both the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) and EASA (European Union Aviation Safety Agency . Thess, A. et al. Lancet 396, 467478 (2020). In this case, seropositivity is negligible in Europe (zero in the UK,64) and low in Africa (9% in Gambian adults,64,131). Corbett, K. S. et al. So far, results of phase III clinical efficacy trials were reported and published for a single subunit vaccine only98, which is manufactured by the company Novavax (NVX-CoV2373) (Table1)98,99 and is still in a stage before regulatory approval100. Commun. The trigger comprises binding of RBD to ACE2 and a further proteolytic cleavage by cellular proteases (in addition to the furin cleavage between S1 and S2) at the so-called S2 site, resulting in the removal of a small sequence element and the exposure of the fusion peptide at the N-terminus of S2 (Fig. The research team ran two studies, enlisting 1700 adults. One of the constituents discussed as being causally linked to anaphylaxis is polyethylene glycol (PEG), which is used in the formulation of LNPs that protect the RNA and facilitate its transfer into cells (section mRNA vaccines). Plante, J. Electron microscopical pictures of the viral spikes in the Sinovac vaccine have been interpreted differently, either as displaying the pre-fusion structure86 or the post-fusion structure25,92. Distinguishing characteristics and unknown features are highlighted in the context of protective antibody responses and reactogenicity of vaccines. Amanat, F. et al. Tsiambas, E. et al. International seroepidemiology of adenovirus serotypes 5, 26, 35, and 48 in pediatric and adult populations. Suryadevara, N. et al. ; Writing: F.X.H. Buschmann, M. D. et al. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Indeed, substantially reduced neutralization titers against some VOCs were observed with sera after immunization with mRNA and adenovirus vector vaccines106,107,108,109, pointing to the importance of the problem. Hopefully, more details will become available in the near future. Our major focus is on variations of the constructs for S biosynthesis in genetic vaccines and on possible conformational differences of S in conventional vaccines. What defines an efficacious COVID-19 vaccine? Safety and efficacy of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine (AZD1222) against SARS-CoV-2: an interim analysis of four randomised controlled trials in Brazil, South Africa, and the UK. Distinguishing features of current COVID-19 vaccines: knowns and unknowns of antigen presentation and modes of action, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41541-021-00369-6. Ther.Methods Clin. Li, Y. et al. Nance, K. D. & Meier, J. L. Modifications in an emergency: the role of N1-methylpseudouridine in COVID-19 vaccines. Correspondence to | Meaning, pronunciation, translations and examples 385, 187189 (2021). Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 133, 271283 (2021). Safety and immunogenicity of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine, BBIBP-CorV: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1/2 trial. One of Johnson's distinguishing features is his long-standing relationship with the Chicago Teachers Union. Res. Safety and immunogenicity of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine, BBV152: interim results from a double-blind, randomised, multicentre, phase 2 trial, and 3-month follow-up of a double-blind, randomised phase 1 trial. 2ac)20,21. Barnes, C. O. et al. Franz X. Heinz or Karin Stiasny. Wrapp, D. et al. Adenoviral vectors contain PAMPs that can be sensed by TLRs at the plasma membrane (TLR2 and TLR4) and the endosomally located TLR9 (reviewed in ref. Vaccine 39, 44234428 (2021). Immune correlates of protection by mRNA-1273 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 in nonhuman primates. An infection often resolves quickly and can appear similar to food poisoning. Acute allergic reactions to mRNA COVID-19 vaccines. High rates of seropositivity against adenovirus 5 (the pioneer of adenovirus vector development) have been reported in the population126,127, and a number of studies have shown that pre-existing vector immunity can impair the response to the vaccine antigen128,129,130. Vaccine 39, 865867 (2021). In addition, approaches to cope with the problem of the lability of the viral S protein cause variation across all current vaccines. In this review, we discuss the biosynthesis and relevant structural features of the viral spike as a basis for understanding differences of its presentation in current COVID-19 vaccines. Tumban, E. Lead SARS-CoV-2 candidate vaccines: expectations from phase III Trials and recommendations post-vaccine approval. Vaccines 9, 453 (2021). Pharm. Hofman, K., Shenoy, G. N., Chak, V. & Balu-Iyer, S. V. Pharmaceutical aspects and clinical evaluation of COVID-19 vaccines. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2108891 (2021). Google Scholar. Top. Google Scholar. Logunov, D. Y. et al. 21, 3951 (2021). Sci. Sophisticated analyses of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine to elucidate underlying pathogenic mechanisms suggest that constituents such as viral DNA and/or cellular proteins can favor the formation of antibodies against platelet factor 4 (PF4), thus promoting VITT74,121. Immunol. IUBMB Life 69, 297304 (2017). MASHANTUCKET, Conn.When the Covid-19 pandemic shuttered Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut for three months in 2020, its owners, the Mashantucket Pequot Tribal Nation, had to reckon with . Coronaviruses are a family of viruses that contain RNA (instead of DNA, like people have). 888-535-6136. Viruses 13, 54 (2021). Article Each spike is about 20 nm long and is composed of a trimer of the S protein. As a consequence of these changes, the S1 subunits dissociate from the trimer, releasing S2 from its constraints in the pre-fusion conformation to allow an irreversible conversion into a characteristic elongated post-fusion structure (Fig. Lancet 397, 23312333 (2021). Lewis, D. Mix-and-match COVID vaccines: the case is growing, but questions remain. Efforts are also underway to replace existing vaccine strains and corresponding sequences for those of the most relevant circulating strains114. Dolgin, E. CureVac COVID vaccine let-down spotlights mRNA design challenges. Prevention of infection with the Beta, Gamma and Delta variants might be lower, although evidence indicates substantial protection from severe disease after two vaccinations110,112,113. Cross-neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 by a human monoclonal SARS-CoV antibody. Chi, X. et al. Lancet Infect. Persistence of RNA and its expression after different routes of application (including intramuscular) appears to be short (at least in mice), with a maximum of 10 days60. npj Vaccines 2, 29 (2017). Current COVID-19 vaccines are very different with respect to their compositions and modes of action, and therefore vaccine-induced innate responses will vary considerably. 1, 131138 (2021). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles Prof. Robert Howarth, ecology and evolutionary biology, has advanced climate understanding throughout his career, conducting groundbreaking research and speaking with world leaders. Sci. a Schematic of replication-incompetent adenoviral vector particle and its DNA. 11, 909 (2020). 9, e42e43 (2021). Google Scholar. The results from a hydrogeological study at LithiumBank Resources Corp (TSX-V:LBNK)'s 100%-owned Park Place lithium brine project, located in Alberta are "surprisingly favorable," according to analysts at Noble Capital.. Cell Host Microbe 28, 586601.e586 (2020). and K.S. Coutard, B. et al. Coronaviruses were first discovered in the . Sometimes coronaviruses that infect animals can evolve and make people sick and become a new human coronavirus. Neutralising antibody activity against SARS-CoV-2 VOCs B.1.617.2 and B.1.351 by BNT162b2 vaccination. 5a) (https://patents.google.com/patent/CN111218459B/en). Lutz, J. et al. Science 369, 1586 (2020). Nature 586, 583588 (2020). Lancet Infect. Coronavirus Rumor Control. Effectiveness of the BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine against the B.1.1.7 and B.1.351 Variants. Vogel, G. Mixing COVID-19 vaccines appears to boost immune responses. ; Visualization: F.X.H. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41541-021-00369-6, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41541-021-00369-6. Blood 110, 19161923 (2007). These subunits remain associated in the trimer through noncovalent interactions, and the virus is probably secreted via exocytic lysosomes with disrupted lysosomal functions17. SARS-CoV-2 vaccine ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 infection of human cell lines reveals low levels of viral backbone gene transcription alongside very high levels of SARS-CoV-2 S glycoprotein gene transcription. Adenoviral vectors persist in vivo and maintain activated CD8+ T cells: implications for their use as vaccines. Science 372, 1108 (2021). Assessing antigen structural integrity through glycosylation analysis of the SARS-CoV-2 viral spike. On November 30, 2021, the U.S. government SARS-CoV-2 Interagency Group (SIG) classified Omicron as a Variant of Concern (VOC). Section navigation Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Feature stories Situation reports; Media resources. Both mRNA vaccines have modulated 5 and 3 untranslated sequences to optimize mRNA stability and translation efficiency44,45, and all uridines are replaced by N1-methylpseudouridine (m1) to further increase RNA stability and to reduce innate immune responses (Fig. Potently neutralizing and protective human antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. During transport, S is cleaved into S1 and S2 by the cellular protease furin in the TGN. Andreano, E. et al. Duan, L. et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a highly transmissible and pathogenic coronavirus that emerged in late 2019 and has caused a pandemic of acute respiratory. Cell 183, 10241042.e1021 (2020). COVID-19 disease caused by the infection of coronavirus strain SARS-CoV-2. 2c, d). Nanomaterial delivery systems for mRNA vaccines. 17, 13331339 (2009). PubMed Central Madhi, S. A. et al. CAS 27, 10551061 (2021). Efficacy and safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. 21, 950961 (2021). Effectiveness of Covid-19 vaccines against the B.1.617.2 (Delta) variant. and JavaScript. Here, we briefly discuss existing data and describe distinguishing features that can contribute to differences among vaccine responses independent of the structure and presentation of the S immunogen. 7, 594602 (2021). ACS Central Sci. Front. SPsignal peptide; SRPsignal recognition particle; tPAtissue plasminogen activator; ERendoplasmic reticulum; C-terC terminus; N-terN terminus. The spike glycoprotein of the new coronavirus 2019-nCoV contains a furin-like cleavage site absent in CoV of the same clade. Front. These data can serve as an indirect measure for the structural integrity of S in the vaccines and the quality of B cell immune responses. Internet Explorer). Nature 588, 498502 (2020). Dis. Native-like SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein expressed by ChAdOx1 nCoV-19/AZD1222 vaccine. Development of chimpanzee adenoviruses as vaccine vectors: challenges and successes emerging from clinical trials. Production of potently neutralizing antibodies requires the interaction of B cells with the native protein, most likely by recognition of the spike anchored in the plasma membrane of S-expressing cells (Fig.1b). Rochman, N. D. et al. 2d)24,25,26. It is part of the unknowns of current COVID-19 adenovirus vector vaccines, how the patterns of background-vector DNA and protein expression look like after vaccination and whether immune reactions to such proteins are induced. Heinz, F. X. In the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine, an extended form of the tPA signal sequence (containing the tPA propeptide) was engineered in front of the authentic S protein signal sequence65,77,78 (Fig. Liu, C. et al. & Yan, J. SARS-CoV-2 virus: vaccines in development. According to published literature, manufacturing of the Sinovac and Novavax vaccines involves extensive purification procedures86,101, suggesting that the antigenic contents of these products consists primarily of the proteins of the virus particle or the isolated spike trimer, respectively. The development of COVID-19 vaccines was extremely fast and successful, with several manufacturers having obtained market authorization for their products within the first year from the identification of the virus (SARS-CoV-2). First identified in the Guangdong province in southern China, according to the. Virus Res. Although in vitro model studies with one of the current adenovirus vector vaccines (ChAdOx1 nCoV-19; Table1) have shown that S-coding transcripts dominate the transcription patterns, rare aberrant splicing or polyadenylation site usage were observed72. However, there may be important clues in the history and the examination that can help differentiate the two. Vaidyanathan, S. et al. Cell 184, 18041820.e1816 (2021). Dis. For delivery, the RNA vaccines are formulated as complexes with specific lipids in the form of lipid nanoparticles (LNP), which not only provide protection from RNA degradation in tissues but also facilitate cellular uptake and release into the cytoplasm for RNA translation (Fig. Ad26 vector-based COVID-19 vaccine encoding a prefusion-stabilized SARS-CoV-2 Spike immunogen induces potent humoral and cellular immune responses. Immunol. mRNA, adenoviral vector as well as inactivated whole-virus vaccines are now in widespread use, and a subunit vaccine is in a final stage of authorization. After amplification in bacterial cells, the plasmid DNA is linearized and impurities are removed before in vitro transcription into RNA. Some people infected with the coronavirus have mild COVID-19 illness, and others have no symptoms at all. Persistence of antigen expression may be a distinctive feature of adenovirus vector vaccines, and has been proposed to contribute to induction of sustained immune responses and long-lasting immunity (reviewed in41). Zhao, P. et al. Tian, J.-H. et al. Capone, S. et al. Cellular immunity predominates over humoral immunity after the first dose of COVID-19 vaccines in solid organ transplant recipients. ACS Central Sci. Sadoff, J. et al. Polack, F. P. et al. Details of purification procedures of the Bharat vaccine and the degree of cellular contaminants in the Sinopharm vaccine (which is less purified than that of Sinovac according to ref. Kowalczyk, A. et al. Johnson's approach to campaigning provides an additional reason for concern. Distinguishing features of current COVID-19 vaccines: knowns and unknowns of antigen presentation and modes of action F. Heinz, K. Stiasny Published 16 August 2021 Biology NPJ Vaccines COVID-19 vaccines were developed with an unprecedented pace since the beginning of the pandemic. Immunol. Nature 592, 283289 (2021). The two protease cleavage sites are indicated by arrows. Another inactivated whole-virus vaccine using similar technology is produced by the Indian company Bharat and has received emergency use authorization in India even before completion of phase III clinical trials91 (Table1). There is indirect evidence that virus strains having emerged later in the pandemic (e.g. Nat. In vitro transcription is followed by several steps of mRNA purification, including the removal of dsRNA, which could lead to an excessive innate immune response and concomitant reactogenicity48,50. . Huang, Q. Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses, but only seven of its members infect humans. Safety and efficacy of single-dose Ad26.COV2.S vaccine against Covid-19. Preservation of the native trimeric pre-fusion conformation, in contrast, was observed in structural studies with formalin-inactivated virus93, suggesting that inactivation and/or purification procedures can influence the ratios of pre- and post-fusion conformations of S and thus the qualities of killed whole-virus vaccines. PubMed Different from SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV in genetics and epidemiology, SARS-CoV-2 is a novel -coronavirus [ 6, 7 ]. Neutralizing antibody levels are highly predictive of immune protection from symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection. We thank Leonhard Heinz for critically reading the manuscript. 384, 403416 (2021). The components used for LNP formulation include phospholipids, cholesterol, special cationic (ionizable) lipids and polyethylene glycol (PEGylated) lipids that are mixed in a sophisticated and critical production step (parts of which are not documented in the published literature) to yield the final vaccine53. Despite incompletely resolved questions (e.g. This is why it's very important that we socially distance from other people, and wear a mask. E1 and E3: Early adenovirus genes 1 and 3, respectively. Mumbai Sees Two Covid-19 Cases, No Death; Active Tally Now 11. Collectively, these data showed that the most potently neutralizing antibodies were specific for the RBD27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34, but several strongly neutralizing antibodies also recognized the NTD27,34,35,36,37, and some were dependent on the quaternary assembly of the trimer27,38. Cite this article. The amount of impurities depends on the purification steps applied in the manufacturing process. npj Vaccines 6, 104 (2021). Several of the 291 candidates listed in the COVID-19 vaccine pipeline by WHO (184 pre-clinical and 107 in clinical development) (https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines, accessed on July 9, 2021), have already reached the market and are used for mass immunization. J. Med. 1a)15. 384, 20922101 (2021). Linares-Fernndez, S., Lacroix, C., Exposito, J.-Y. CAS Heterologous prime-boost COVID-19 vaccination: initial reactogenicity data. Amanat, F. et al. 1; Black students are more likely than White students to receive harsher consequences . The two mRNA vaccines in current widespread application (BioNTech-Pfizer and Moderna) (Table1) are technologically very similar. Med. Except for mRNA vaccines, different eukaryotic cell cultures are used in the production of current COVID-19 vaccines (see sections Biosynthesis and key properties of the spike protein and Vaccine-specific differences of S-antigen structure and presentation and Table1). 80). Rev. Mol. Towards understanding ChAdOx1 nCov-19 vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT). PubMed Antiviral Res. More or less shedding of S1 and conversion of S2 into its post-fusion structure (S2*) may occur in the absence of stabilizing mutations. The potency of these antibodies depends on high-affinity interactions with specific parts of the complex three-dimensional structure of the spike in a native conformation10,11. Finn, T. M. & Egan, W. Vaccine Additives and Manufacturing Residuals in Vaccines Licensed in the United States. Trends. 11, 589833 (2020). Fausther-Bovendo, H. & Kobinger, G. P. Pre-existing immunity against Ad vectors: humoral, cellular, and innate response, whats important? The inactivated whole virus vaccine produced by Bharat (Covaxin, Table1) is adjuvanted with an imidazoquinoline class molecule (IMDG, a TLR 7/8 agonist) adsorbed on aluminum hydroxide gel (Algel-IMDG) that shifts the response towards Th197,141,142. AZD1222-induced neutralising antibody activity against SARS-CoV-2 Delta VOC. Graham, C. et al. The team ran the headlines through a rigorous fact checking. Ke, Z. et al. The coronavirus and its variants are very contagious. Efficient formation of such antibodies by B cells requires helper functions of CD4 T cells that are specifically stimulated by peptides derived from the same antigen in complex with MHCII molecules. Although distinguishing COVID-19 from normal lung or other lung diseases, such as cancer at chest CT, may be straightforward, a major hurdle in controlling the current pandemic is making out subtle radiologic differences between COVID-19 and pneumonia of other origins. Safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in healthy adults aged 18-59 years: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1/2 clinical trial. While on site, please take precautions to protect yourself and others from Covid-19 by wearing a mask and maintaining social distance as outlined in the Center for Disease Control (CDC) Guidelines. The authors speculate that such secreted forms may bind to ACE2-expressing endothelial cells and could contribute to thrombotic events via antibody-mediated mechanism as observed after vaccination with adenovirus vector COVID-19 vaccines74,75 (see also section Reactions due to vaccine constituents other than the immunogen). Neutralization potency of monoclonal antibodies recognizing dominant and subdominant epitopes on SARS-CoV-2 Spike is impacted by the B.1.1.7 variant. Release 333, 511520 (2021). Preprint at https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.04.20.440647v2 (2021). To help spearhead significant victories . Cell 184, 23162331.e2315 (2021). Vaccine 35, 37803788 (2017). A comprehensive review of the global efforts on COVID-19 vaccine development. We also address the grey matter of additional variables, such as ill-defined downstream production processes and purity of vaccines as well as differences in triggering sensors of innate immunity. The architecture of inactivated SARS-CoV-2 with postfusion spikes revealed by Cryo-EM and Cryo-ET. Variations include (but are not limited to) the type of adenovirus used as a vector, genetic modifications of the vector, the cell lines used for vaccine production, procedures for purification, and the specific design of the gene for expressing S (Table1). Efficacy of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 Covid-19 vaccine against the B.1.351 variant. & Lor, K. Immune responses induced by mRNA vaccination in mice, monkeys and humans. Manish Sadarangani, Arnaud Marchant & Tobias R. Kollmann, Samir Andrade Mendona, Reka Lorincz, David T. Curiel, Nikolaos C. Kyriakidis, Andrs Lpez-Corts, Esteban Ortiz Prado, Guido Forni, Alberto Mantovani & on behalf of the COVID-19 Commission of Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Rome, Milja Belik, Pinja Jalkanen, Ilkka Julkunen, Aileen Ebenig, Mona V. Lange & Michael D. Mhlebach, Neeltje van Doremalen, Jonathan E. Schulz, Vincent J. Munster, Chih-Jung Chen, Lan-Yan Yang, Kuan-Ying A. Huang, Simon P. Graham, Rebecca K. McLean, Teresa Lambe, npj Vaccines The virus that causes COVID-19 is designated severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2); previously, it was referred to as 2019-nCoV. It infects persons of any race, ethnicity, or community. In fact, . Cell 183, 15201535.e1514 (2020). BMJ 372, n196 (2021). 4B, right) and further downstream processes for the removal of cellular components and free viral DNA71. JAMA 325, 15621565 (2021). Science 369, 643 (2020). There is evidence that the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine might induce higher levels of specific T cells, whereas mRNA vaccines might induce higher antibody titers115,116,117. 2c)22,23,24. Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate the slides or the slide controller buttons at the end to navigate through each slide. 26, 311323 (2020). Nat. Article Vaccine 34, 38823893 (2016). PubMed https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01413-7 (2021). Barouch, D. H. et al. In some cases, however, COVID-19 can lead to respiratory failure, lasting lung and heart muscle damage, nervous system problems, kidney failure or death.

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