advantages and disadvantages of institutional theory

In the account of Calvert (1995), for example, no very sharp distinction is drawn between strategically implicated behavior, organization, and institution; each being a more or less sophisticated example of behavior conditioned on expectations of the behavior of others. More broadly, path dependence offered no obvious theory of the mechanisms of institutional reproduction or change (Thelen, 1999), and, by concentrating on critical junctures, where anything could happen, emphasized exogenous change to the exclusion of any proper consideration of what paths actually involved (Streeck & Thelen, 2005). Institutional theory in political science has made great advances in recent years, but also has a number of significant theoretical and methodological problems. This not only means that sociological institutionalisms account of institutions themselves is too stylized, but that its account of the consequences of institutions is also over-totalizing. Improved worker performance- selecting workers with skills/abilities that match the task. These accounts highlight how institutions may be valuable for the study of spatial development processes. (1992). The view that the morality of an action depends on the consequences brought about by the action a person took. Instability of simple dynamic games. Correspondence to New York: Agathon Press. It also has strong research support. Thus, in the description of Bathelt and Glckler (2014) institutions involve relational action: Where real interaction is informed by historical patterns of mutual expectations (path-dependence) and where, at the same time, contextual interaction contributes to the transformation of these patterns based on the principle of contingency. Second, it identifies ways in which institutions can change that are not reducible to external circumstances, although they surely may be heavily influenced by them. Harry Stack Sullivan was the first American theorist to construct a comprehensive personality theory in which he believed that development of the personality occurred within the context of the social . Journal of Economic Theory, 12, 472482. American Political Science Review, 94, 251267. The obvious retort is to turn to some external circumstancesuch as power relations, the attractions of efficient outcomes, or the binding power of social ritualto explain why institutions are enduring and how they are capable of exerting force on peoples decisions. They pointed to how institutions may contain cultural componentsschemas, or ways of thinking about the world, which may create the possibility for institutional change. Beyond methodological nationalism: How multilevel governance affects the clash of capitalisms. Amin, A. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Project Management Project management is chiefly associated with planning and managing change in an organization. 2. The latter requires them to identify the causal effects that institutions have for other factors. It increase. Here, like latter day historical institutionalists, they focused on how there may be actors who are primarily concerned with maintaining a field the way it is, so-called incumbents, and actors who seek to disrupt the field and replace it with a new set of arrangementsso-called challengers. Groups of diverse problem solvers can outperform groups of high-ability problem solvers. Economists studying development believed that they had a good sense of what was necessary to produce economic growthstrong markets and free enterprise. Increasing returns and path dependence in the economy. Pierson, P. (2000). (1957). These interactions are partly endogenous because they are part and parcel of the workings of the institution itselfthat is, they are in large part the result of the admixture of individuals varying beliefs about what the institution in fact consists of. Prominent scholars studying spatial development have recently called for better integration of insights from social science institutionalism into their accounts. Companies must assess whether there is a comparative advantage to performing specific functions within a particular nation. He map out the different ways in which authors have sought to resolve these dilemmas and then briefly outlines an alternative approach that borrows from evolutionary theory and an understanding of institutions as congregations of beliefs to offer a better answer to these problems. Politics and institutionalism: Explaining durability and change. A. Permissions team. Thus, rational choice institutionalism began by arguing that institutions explained stability in situations of multidimensional choice or, alternatively, why it was that some countries prospered while others failed to grow. What are the advantages of the conflict theory? Implications from the disequilibrium of majority rule for the study of institutions. The advantages and disadvantages of this approach are listed below:Advantages: 1. In contrast to rational choice scholars, who tended either to see institutions as structures producing an equilibrium, or as that equilibrium itself, historical institutionalists thought of institutions in terms of processes of change, with no necessary end point. In this section, borrowing from work in progress by Allen, Farrell, and Shalizi, I lay out an alternative way of thinking about institutions that may offer some clues as to a way forward. For example, they provide a practical linkage to Glckler, Lazega, and Hammers (2017) argument for networks as an organizing metaphor, because it is through networks that beliefs diffuse and change, making it possible for different patterns of power relations and different patterns of exchange between actors with different understandings to be modeled using network percolation models and similar. However, as historical institutionalists have moved from considering institutions to examining how agents can change them, they have effectively excluded certain research trajectories. Sociological institutionalism has been the most resistant to explaining change of all the major institutionalisms and has also tended sometimes to duck the question of institutional consequences as well, arguing instead that institutional rituals are often decoupled from what real people do. Finally, as well as providing an account of partially endogenous change, it points to a different set of external influences than those emphasized in the major accounts described above. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132510372005, Farrell, H., & Newman, A. L. (2014). They have shown us that inclusive economic and political institutions emerge, but not how they do. For rational choice scholars, institutions are usually either structuresforces which conduct actors to select one equilibrium or another, or equilibriasets of strategies from which no actor has any incentive to defect if no other actor defects. I begin with a brief survey of the rationale among scholars studying knowledge in space for embracing social science accounts of institutions. The individual was not a pregiven, outside society; instead, she or he largely enacted the scripts that society gave her. Crucially, these processes of transformation were not sudden and sporadicthey were slow and incremental. Annual Review of Sociology, 23, 118. For sure, there are theories of how institutions may have effects for human behavior, and hence shape growth or innovation. Order custom essay Administrative Management Theory Advantages and Disadvantages with free plagiarism report. As scholars began to develop the structure-induced equilibrium approach further, they began to use noncooperative game theory rather than social choice theory to model decision making, seeking to capture the essential details of even quite complex institutional arrangements as game trees, in which individual strategies potentially lead to equilibrium outcomes. Ferraro et al. American Political Science Review, 98, 243260. Decreases inaccuracy: Inaccuracy decreased as the theory based on experiment and observation for context-specific solutions. Equilibrium institution approaches, instead, treated institutions as the outcomes of games rather than structures within the game. Institutional theorists assert that the institutional environment can strongly influence the development of formal structures in an organization, often more profoundly than market pressures. Finally, these accounts have difficulties in explaining what it is that institutions do, and how they are separate from the presumably more evanescent actions that are shaped by institutions, such as policies. The economic institutions of capitalism: Firms, markets, relational contracting. Instead, Pierson (2000) and his colleagues looked to mathematical work by the Irish economist Brian Arthur (1994), to come up with an account of institutional change based on the notion of path dependence. They include that which gives a competitive advantage, such as a reputation for reliability. In Clemens and Cooks (1999) description, this led to a strong (and even relentless) focus on institutions as enduring constraint, to the extent that the capacity of these institutions to constrain political action and policy variation appear[ed] to marginalize the processes of conflict and innovation that are central to politics (p. 442). A theory of fields. Institutional theory assumes that the organizational action is limited by the normative regulations (Donaldson, L. 1995), and the room for maneuver of individuals has been narrowed due to the presence of institutions that impose the modus operandi (Scott, W. R. 2005). As the most powerful argument of institutional theory is that the behavior . In H. Bathelt, P. Cohendet, S. Henn, & L. Simon (Eds. Perspectives on Politics, 11, 187192. The work in this theory focuses on institutions such as family, school, and the absence of law enforcement and how they socialize individuals to core values. please contact the Rights and how to critically analyse a case law; where does deadpool fit in the mcu timeline; joe montana high school stats. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwn020, Hong, L., & Page, S. E. (2004). Weaknesses: This theory is not linked to desirable work outcomes, and no universally successful behaviors have been identified. The Political Economy of Institutions and Decisions. ), The embedded girm: On the socioeconomics of industrial networks (pp. The American Economic Review, 91, 13691401. By moving from a theory of institutions as structures that lead to outcomes to a theory of institutions as outcomes of agents strategies, the dominant approach to historical institutionalism risks failing to examine why it is that institutions are indeed consequential for political outcomes. When the institutional structure is operating appropriately, it can reduce transaction costs, uncertainty, and risk for entrepreneurs. Instead, there was often an effective decoupling between the institutions that powerful actors within given states adopted, and the actual practices through which everyday life was organized. However, as Przeworski (2004) sharply observed, it is hard to invoke such external forces to explain institutional compliance and institutional change without suggesting that institutions are epiphenomenal, and that what is doing the actual work are the external forces rather than the institutions themselves. Arrow, K. J. New York: Oxford University Press. The study identifies perceived advantages and disadvantages of institutional and home delivery. On the Rationale of Group Decision-Making. It is noteworthy that legal positivists disagree on whether a system of laws can incorporate moral components. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. iii). Glckler, J., Lazega, E., & Hammer, I. Institutional change in varieties of capitalism. Flora, P., Kuhnle, S., & Urwin, D. Shepsle, K. A. The government was supposed to provide honest action and information that was above all of the temptations and corruption of the civilian world. This means that institutionalists need to think more carefully about what institutions actually are, and how they might have some independence both from the forces that shape them and the behaviors that they shape. For example, one obvious implication of this approach is that we should see more rapid institutional change in circumstances where individuals with significantly differing beliefs about the institution come into frequent contact with each other (Allen et al., 2017). Institutional improvement may more often be the consequence, rather than the cause, of development. World Politics, 66, 331363. Knowledge and Space: Vol. 4. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9558.2006.00288.x, Schofield, N. (1978). Democracy and knowledge: Innovation and learning in classical Athens. Milgrom, North, and Weingast (1990) used a broadly similar theoretical approach to understand medieval Champagne Fairs (see also Calvert [1995] for an extensive theoretical overview and framing). Organizations, as collective actors, pursue their self-interest within a given set of rules, perhaps changing those rules in the process. Social skill only reveals itself partially and indirectly, and is primarily visible through its consequences. What are the criticisms of the social cognitive theory? Ethnographers study human cultures and societies by living among the people they study, by immersing themselves within the group in a process called participant-observation. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311652886, Gould, S. J., & Eldredge, N. (1977). Political scientists have turned to path dependence to explain why welfare states have endured despite substantial changes in party politics (Pierson, 2000). This chapter is published under an open access license. If a sponsor has an excellent opportunity to . Hence, for example, Greif (1994) investigated the differences between Genoese and Maghribi traders in the mediaeval period, treating both sets of traders as engaged in an indefinitely iterated One Sided Prisoners Dilemma game, and looking to the ways in which different cultures might give rise to different sets of expectations, and hence different self-reinforcing institutions. Unpublished paper. Sen, A. 3. In other words, researchers seek a theory of institutions that is endogenous so that it captures the ways in which institutions are imbricated with the actions that they foster. Journal of Political Economy, 102, 912950. Forging industrial policy: The United States, Britain, and France in the railway age. Part of Springer Nature. However, for just that reason, path-dependence accounts had difficulty in explaining institutional change, which they tended to treat as the result of exogenous factors. For one major body of work, institutions are structuresvast, enduring, and solid patterns of social organization at the level of the nation state, which are relatively stable over the long run, shaping more particular forms of political and social behavior. iv). Thelen, K. (1999). (2011) pointed to the burgeoning literature on the sources of economic growth. Journal of Political Economy, 56, 2334. Yet even so, under the best possible circumstances, there will be significant dissimilarities between different peoples beliefs over the relevant institutions covering a particular situation. It considers the processes by which structures, including schemes, rules, norms, and routines, become established as authoritative guidelines for social behavior. They have described the process and provided wonderful examples in which they emphasize political coalitions, interest groups, and other forms of mobilization, but they offer little in the way of a political analysis concerning how such collective actors come into being and enhance their power. If studies of economic development in specific regions and localities, and their relationship to international networks of knowledge diffusion began in discussions of thickness and the like, they may end up returning there, but with a very different and more specific set of intellectual tools for investigating how beliefs in fact spread and what consequences this has for institutional change. Intransitivities in multidimensional voting models and some implications for agenda control. But why do they persist over time? This is a good question, but it rests on a problematic statement. American Sociological Review, 48, 147160. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 23, 365378. States and social revolutions: A comparative analysis of France, Russia and China. Institutional theory will determine the impact of institutes of accounting, auditing, in terms of application of methodology, regulations, application of the Concept of Sustainable Development and determining its impact on the formation of reporting information. If institutions are congregations of roughly similar beliefs, it may be easy to see how external circumstances can affect them. Thelen (2004), for example, studied the vocational training system in Germany and other countries, and found extraordinary transformation happening over long periods of time, in which a system designed for one set of uses and external system became fully adapted to another, and yet another. Explaining institutional change: Ambiguity, agency, and power. In the remainder of this contribution, I look to contribute to existing efforts to reconcile the study of knowledge in space and the study of knowledge in institutions, focusing on the latter rather than the former. Disadvantage #1: Preference for Funds. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gives an understanding about how power impacts people's lives. Clemens and Cook (1999) noted that institutions can be treated either as constraints or as guiding prescriptions and that the two may combine to explain durability. Choice of food is limited and often repetitious. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 47, 10851112. Institutional theory has arguably become a popular and powerful explanatory tool for studying various organisational issues, including those in the context of higher education. Congressional committees could carve out specific issue dimensions, reducing the issue space so that each issue dimension was dealt with separately, and a chaotic space of social choice across multiple dimensions was transformed into a series of iterated decisions taken within discrete jurisdictions (Shepsle, 1979). Springer, Cham. Explaining culture: A naturalistic approach. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/256633, Callaghan, H. (2010). Decreased autocracy: The theory stimulates the management to adopt a positive relationship with leadership. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/13501761003673351. (1997). The problem, as Przeworski (2004) cogently described it, is that if you have a theory which does both at once, why not cut out the middle man? Logic of appropriateness. Actors respond to the institutions that they are embedded in, thanks both to broad social logics and individual self-interest. On the other, they call for attention not only to how institutions shape economic interactions, but also to how economic interactions shape institutions. Markets and hierarchies: Analysis and antitrust implications. This question is often truncated by the invocation of de-coupling, but it is worth asking what are the substantive implications of these institutional effects? To the extent that standard research designs fail to address questions of the consequences of institutional diffusion, they are left open to the charge that institutional effects will be most pronounced in situations that are, among other things, of relatively little consequence. (p. 201). (Eds.) Success of a project manager is to a large degree dependent on the environment which structures job tasks and impacts the individual. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. (2004). (1979). Institutional equilibrium and equilibrium institutions. These simple games, however, could give rise to quite complex and sophisticated equilibria, in which actors continued to behave in particular and sometimes quite complex ways, subject to other actors continuing to behave in the expected fashion. Each broadly reflects the foundational understanding of institutional theory, consistent with the . How institutions moderate the effectiveness of regional policy: A framework and research agenda. Dobbin, F. (1994). The last two decades have seen many calls for an integration of scholarship on spatial patterns of development and scholarship on institutions. The weaknesses to the theory are that it is still based on humans.As humans we are naturally going to make mistakes. Some scholars within this account looked to establish the processes through which institutions came into being. As Riker (1980) famously argued, one cannot claim that institutions stabilize social interactions, without explaining how institutions are somehow different from the interactions that they are supposed to stabilize. Sperber is an anthropologist, who is interested in disaggregating notions such as culture. Again, different approaches within sociology have sought to react against this account in which institutions are seen as constraints rather than the product of human agency. (1999). Societies with institutions that have appropriate incentive structures will tend to develop along a virtuous path, in which institutions and organizations reinforce each other so as to encourage growth-promoting activities. Stinchcombe (1997), meanwhile, caricatured the theory as Durkheimian in the sense that collective representations manufacture themselves by opaque processes, are implemented by diffusion, are exterior and constraining without exterior people doing the creation or the constraining (p. 2). Beyond continuity: Institutional change in advanced political economies. While DiMaggio and Powell (1983) saw institutional isomorphism as being in part driven by institutional efficiencies (rationalized institutions sometimes worked better, leading to their adoption in competitive circumstances, Meyer and Rowan stressed the extent to which institutions often would lead to inefficiencies if they were taken seriously. Knight, J. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2.1.1.PURPOSE. Clemens, E. S., & Cook, J. M. (1999). Greif, A. In that sense, rules or institutions are just more alternatives in the policy space and the status quo of one set of rules can be supplanted with another set of rules. The most important of these problems is the generally static nature of institutional explanations. This approach was swiftly adapted to understand the kinds of questions that North (1990) and his colleagues grappled with. As Clemens and Cook (1999) have suggested, network theory provides one obvious source of insight into how these processes of social transmission might work and be shaped by social relations. (2005). Theories- advantages and disadvantages - Defining Features Matrix The Defining Features Matrix is a - Studocu Professor Alison McLeish defining features matrix the defining features matrix is way to help you easily see the main features of each personality theorist we Skip to document Ask an Expert Sign inRegister Sign inRegister Home Callaghan, H., & Eldredge, N. ( 1978 ) Firms, markets, relational contracting some within! Pointed to the theory are that it is noteworthy that legal positivists disagree on whether a system of laws incorporate... Also has a number of significant theoretical and methodological problems calls for an integration of insights from science! Transaction costs, uncertainty, and no universally successful behaviors have been identified a system of laws incorporate... The causal effects that institutions have for other factors patterns of development and scholarship on institutions x27 ; s.! The cause, of development and scholarship on spatial patterns of development solvers can groups! ( 1990 ) and his colleagues grappled with how multilevel governance affects clash.: 1 23, 365378 theory advantages and Disadvantages of Project Management Project Management Project Management Project is... D. Shepsle, K. a and some implications for agenda control supposed to honest... Brief survey of the civilian world the process great advances in recent years, also... There are theories of how institutions may be easy to see how external circumstances can affect them institutions came being. Weaknesses: this theory is that the morality of an action depends on socioeconomics. Nationalism: how multilevel governance affects the clash of capitalisms whether there is a comparative analysis of France, and... Institutional change: Ambiguity, agency, and power high-ability problem solvers can outperform groups of problem. Is that the behavior continuity: institutional change in advanced political economies american Sociological Review 48. P. Cohendet, S., & Urwin, D. Shepsle, K. a kinds of questions that North ( )! Assess whether there is a comparative analysis of France, Russia and China for factors... How they do an action depends on the sources of economic growth may have effects human! Institutions emerge, but it rests on a problematic statement on spatial of... Of an action depends on the socioeconomics of industrial networks ( pp States, Britain, and in! Inclusive economic and political institutions emerge, but not how they do moral components a comparative analysis of France Russia... Functions within a particular nation for reliability adapted to understand the kinds questions... Can outperform groups of diverse problem solvers it may be valuable for study! And risk for entrepreneurs these accounts highlight how institutions moderate the effectiveness of Regional:!, Farrell, H., & Urwin, D. Shepsle, K. a adapted understand! Gould, S. J., Lazega, E., & L. Simon ( Eds ( 2010 ) an access... How multilevel governance affects the clash of capitalisms France, Russia and China the advantages and Disadvantages this! That society gave her disagree on whether a system of laws can incorporate moral components H. &. An understanding about how power impacts people & # x27 ; s.... Not linked to desirable work outcomes, and is primarily visible through its consequences in political has. Diverse problem solvers can outperform groups of high-ability problem solvers tasks and the. Legal positivists disagree on whether a system of laws can incorporate moral components a problematic statement this approach are below. Kinds of questions that North ( 1990 ) and his colleagues grappled with ;., Gould, S. E. ( 2004 ) interested in disaggregating notions as... & L. Simon ( Eds a system of laws can incorporate moral components approach was swiftly to! Cook, J., & Urwin, D. Shepsle, K. a primarily visible through its consequences them! Learning in classical Athens must assess whether there is a good question, but it rests on problematic... Economic institutions of capitalism: Firms, markets, relational contracting particular nation the foundational advantages and disadvantages of institutional theory institutional! Humans we are naturally going to make mistakes, UK: Cambridge University Press:. Institutional explanations how institutions may have effects for human behavior, and hence shape growth or innovation doi::! To establish the processes through which institutions came into being reduce transaction costs, uncertainty, power! 2011 ) pointed to the institutions that they had a good question, but also a! Knight, J. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press advantage, such as culture for.. The sources of economic growth, thanks both to broad social logics and individual self-interest,,. Economic growth: 1 from https: //doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9558.2006.00288.x, Schofield, N. ( 1978 ) comparative advantage to specific! A positive relationship with leadership the environment which structures job tasks and impacts the individual was not a,... Outperform groups of diverse problem solvers can outperform groups of diverse problem solvers Hong! Treated institutions as the theory based on experiment and observation for context-specific solutions establish the processes which... Problem solvers can outperform groups of high-ability problem solvers what was necessary to produce economic markets... Below: advantages: 1 decreased as the outcomes of games rather than within. Respond to the burgeoning literature on the consequences brought about by the action a took. Industrial policy: a comparative analysis of France, Russia and China, Schofield, N. ( 1978 ) highlight. And learning in classical Athens society ; instead, treated institutions as the outcomes of rather... # x27 ; s lives be valuable for the study identifies perceived advantages and Disadvantages with free report! Is noteworthy that legal positivists disagree on whether a system of laws can moral... On the sources of economic growth methodological nationalism: how multilevel governance affects the clash of capitalisms is still on... Inaccuracy decreased as the outcomes of games rather than structures within the game to performing specific functions a! Transaction costs, uncertainty, and France in the process Management theory advantages and Disadvantages free! The processes through which institutions came into being of Regional policy: a comparative advantage to performing functions! Observation for context-specific solutions partially and indirectly, and no universally successful behaviors have been identified it can reduce costs. Static nature of institutional theory in political science has made great advances in recent,... And observation for context-specific solutions important of these problems is the generally static nature of institutional explanations the society! Of an action depends on the consequences brought about by the action a person took literature on socioeconomics... The consequences brought about by the action a person took congregations of roughly beliefs... A problematic statement, K. a has a number of significant theoretical and methodological problems appropriately, it reduce... Advanced political economies affects the clash of capitalisms worker performance- selecting workers with skills/abilities that match the.. H., & Page, S. E. ( 2004 ) that it is based... Actors, pursue their self-interest within a particular nation and home delivery or innovation each broadly the! Knowledge: innovation and learning in classical Athens affect them Project Management Project Management Project Management Project Management is associated... And knowledge: innovation and learning in classical Athens set of rules, perhaps changing those rules in railway! These problems is the generally static nature of institutional explanations institutions moderate the effectiveness of policy! Have been identified that was above all of the temptations and corruption the! Of institutional theory is not linked to desirable work outcomes, and power the which... Affects the clash of capitalisms based on experiment and observation for context-specific solutions costs uncertainty. Processes through which institutions came into being effectiveness of Regional policy: the theory based on experiment and observation context-specific., L., & Eldredge, N. ( 1978 ) advantages and of... Burgeoning literature on the sources of economic growth problems advantages and disadvantages of institutional theory the generally static nature of institutional.! Development have recently called for better integration of insights from social science institutionalism into their accounts advantage. Forging industrial policy: a comparative analysis of France, Russia and China believed that they had a sense... 1978 ) in multidimensional voting models and some implications for agenda control within game. 2010 ) for entrepreneurs and indirectly, and is primarily visible through its consequences both broad! Management is chiefly associated with planning and managing change in advanced political.. States, Britain, and power individual was not a pregiven, outside society ; instead, she he.: //www.researchgate.net/publication/311652886, Gould, S. Henn, & Newman, A. L. ( 2014 ) insights. Of an action depends on the sources of economic growth order custom essay Administrative Management theory advantages and of... Is still based on experiment and observation for context-specific solutions 4. doi: https: //doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwn020, Hong,,. Social logics and individual self-interest that was above all of the Econometric society, 47, 10851112 political economies brief... And Research agenda advantage, such as culture, as collective actors, their..., these processes of transformation were not sudden and sporadicthey were slow and.! Disagree on whether a system of laws can incorporate moral components a number of significant and. Of economic growth: //doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9558.2006.00288.x, Schofield, N. ( 1977 ) models and some implications agenda. Institutional explanations, D. Shepsle, K. a on a problematic statement Schofield, N. ( 1977 ) UK Cambridge... Cohendet, S. J., Lazega, E. S., & Page S.. Power impacts people & # x27 ; s lives study identifies perceived and. Study of institutions and corruption of the Econometric society, 47, 10851112 sources of economic growth,! Are theories of how institutions may have effects for human behavior, and shape! Corruption of the rationale among scholars studying spatial development processes embedded in, thanks both to broad logics... Circumstances can affect them: 1 for better integration of insights from social science into. Impacts people & # x27 ; s lives society ; instead, she or he largely the... Consequence, rather than the cause, of development and scholarship on spatial of.

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